May 18, 2006
In this issue
§ Managing corn and soybean fields submerged by recent heavy rains
§ 2006 review of weed management options for dry edible beans
§ Recent rains may be too late for incorporation of soil-applied herbicides
§ Wet conditions encourage soil-borne diseases of potatoes
§ Wet conditions may favor early season crown and root rot in sugar beet
§ Wheat disease update
§ Nitrogen availability
§ Regional reports
§ Weather news
The heavy rains have continued and have resulted in isolated areas of severe ponding in parts of the state. This problem has left growers struggling with the question of whether or not to replant water damaged stands and how to manage fields that have yet to be planted.
The first step is to determine whether plants survived being under water or in saturated soil. Seed that has germinated but not emerged is also susceptible to excessive water damage. In corn, most of the plant mortality will be in localized low areas of the field that were subjected to standing water. The survivability of plants or seedlings under water is dependant on temperature, growth stage, variety, soil type, nutrient status and other factors but is generally in the 24 to 96 hour range. In cool temperatures, plants will survive longer as respiration slows. Conversely, when temperatures warm up, plants consume oxygen quicker, and submerged plants will not survive as long. In cool conditions, corn can survive four days submerged. With soil temperatures warmed up in the upper 70s, submerged corn may survive for only 24 hours. Fortunately, the cool temperatures experienced throughout much of Michigan while plants were submerged has likely increased the chances for stand recovery where the duration of flooding was not excessive. In soybeans, soilborne disease such as pythium and phytopthora can result in plant mortality beyond those areas that were under water. In assessing a soybean stand, for more fertile soils, a minimum of 80,000 to 100,000 living plants per acre are needed to approach the full yield potential of the field. In poorer soils, 100,000 plants per acre are needed. In situations with less than the minimum number of plants remaining, the cost of replanting should be weighed against the expected increase in yield to determine if replanting will be economically feasible.
Generally, the time it takes for submerged soil to dry out enough to get equipment on for replanting, is usually time enough to make a determination whether or not plants have survived. However, it can be difficult to determine survivability when plants are covered with soil and plant residue left behind by receding water. In these cases, split a plant lengthwise through the stem. The growing point should be relatively firm and white or cream colored. Darkening or softening of the growing point indicates a nonviable (dead) plant. A step by step worksheet (MSU E Bulletin # E-1961) to guide producers through a replant decision is available through local MSU Extension offices.
There is still time
to replant drowned out corn or soybeans with varieties having appropriate
maturities in Michigan. If the rains continue and field operations are delayed
until the end of May, growers may want to consider planting an earlier
maturing, short season hybrid. The lower half of the Lower Peninsula will on
average, accumulate 2000 to 2200 growing degree days from June 1 to first
frost. This is sufficient to mature 80-90 day corn and soybeans with a group II
or less maturity classification. It is not recommended to plant corn after June
15. The rule of thumb most commonly applied to lost yield potential for delayed
planting is one bushel per acre per day after May 10, and up to 2 bushels per
acre per day after June 1. Soybeans can generally be planted up to the end of
June, although yields will likely be reduced commensurate with the later
planting date.
When replanting
flooded out areas that still have some viable plants, it is usually best to
tear up the existing stand and start over with an even-emerging stand. This may
require you to manage the area differently than the non-flooded parts of the
field with regard to activities based on plant growth stage such as weed
control and time of harvest. Other considerations in flooded out areas include
potential weed problems from weed seed brought in by encroaching waters,
herbicide residue washed in from adjacent fields, loss of herbicide control
from excessive leaching or erosion, loss of nitrogen through denitrification or
leaching and increased incidence of phytophthora and other root disease. Nodule
function in soybeans is also reduced in saturated soil. However, nodule
activity resumes to normal levels once the soil dries out. Scout fields closely
for these factors and use a PSNT soil test to determine nitrogen losses.
Following are other
considerations with late planting that I have compiled including some from Bob
Nielsen at Purdue University and Jim Beuerlein at Ohio State.
Bt corn hybrids. For most Michigan corn production systems, economic benefits from the use of transgenic Bt corn hybrids resistant to corn borers are more likely to occur with delayed plantings, especially when there is earlier planted corn in the vicinity. Consequently, growers may want to consider switching some of their late-planted intended non-Bt corn acreage to Bt hybrids as insurance against the higher risk of infestation by late brood corn borers.
Previous herbicides applied. Before replanting, review potential label restrictions associated with previously applied herbicides.
Seeding rates. There is no need to consider changing seeding rates for corn simply because planting is delayed. Optimum seeding rates for most growers’ fields range from 28,000 to 33,000 seeds per acre. Lower rates (low to mid-20’s) are suitable for fields with yield levels historically near or below 100 bushels per acre. Unlike corn, soybean has a great propensity to compensate or “flex” when plant populations vary. Therefore, the optimal planting population range is wider for soybean than it is for corn. Determining the minimal scale of that optimal soybean planting population range will optimize profitability and still maintain yield. As a starting point, begin with a planting population of 175,000 seeds per acre for drilled systems and 130,000 seeds per acre for 30 inch rows and then adjust down or up from there based upon field productivity, planting date, and planting conditions. When planting late, resulting soybean plants will be smaller than earlier planted soybeans. To compensate for the potential yield decrease of smaller plants due to late planting, increase your planting population by 20%.
Seeding depth. The key factor that should be used for determining seeding depth for corn is the importance of adequate and uniform soil moisture in the seed furrow. Some might say this is a moot point given the current soggy soil conditions. Remember, though, how quickly Mother Nature can change and how quickly shallow-placed seed can find themselves in bone-dry soil. A seeding depth of 1.5 to 2.5 inches for corn and 1.0 to 2.0 for soybean is acceptable over a range of soil conditions. Shallower depths for corn are risky if rains stop altogether and surface soils begin to dry rapidly.
Field tillage operations. Remaining pre-plant field operations should be scrutinized carefully to determine whether they are truly necessary. With today’s modern corn planters, there is little reason to overly-prepare a field to create a picture-perfect seedbed. In delayed planting situations, every day wasted overworking a field is a day lost to planting and represents lost yield potential. Furthermore, unnecessary tillage operations on soils that may be marginally wet increase the risk of creating tire and tillage compaction layers that can haunt root development and corn health later if excessively dry conditions suddenly become the norm.
Planter sidewall compaction. Another concern to watch for is the potential for significant root restriction by severe sidewall compaction when a rapid shift from wet to dry conditions occurs. If at all possible, avoid planting fields when soil moisture conditions favor the smearing of furrow sidewalls by the coulters or double-disc openers of the planter. The potential yield loss from planting in fields that are too wet far outweighs the potential yield loss from delaying planting until field conditions are suitable. Planting in wet conditions often results in sidewall compaction of the seed furrow. This causes poor seed to soil contact which has several negative consequences including: reduced germination and poor stands; uneven emergence which reduces yield due to plant-to-plant competition; and, restricted root growth which compromises the plant’s ability to withstand moisture stress later in the growing season. In addition, the limited rooting can result in phosphorus deficiency even though soil test phosphorus levels are adequate. This occurs because the plant uses all of the phosphorus that is immediately available within the seed furrow. The roots of these plants will appear thickened and gnarled – a visual sign of compaction. After a period of time, the roots may break through the compacted sidewalls and explore more of the soil. As this occurs, the phosphorus deficiency may be overcome and the plant will begin growing normally again. However, the sidewall smearing and compaction is likely to have set the crop back by a week or more as it tries to overcome the inhospitable soil environment.
Nitrogen fertilizer applications. Because the recent flooding will likely delay planting until the end of May or early June, growers may want to consider backing off on their intended nitrogen fertilizer application rates due to the expected lower yield of the late-planted corn. The rule of thumb most commonly applied to lost yield potential for delayed planting is one bushel per acre per day after May 10, and up to 2 bushels per acre per day after June 1. Consider using a pre-sidedress soil nitrate test to further fine-tune your nitrogen application rates.
Starter fertilizer. Where soil phosphorus and potassium soil test levels are adequate or better and tillage is other than pure no-till, consider eliminating starter fertilizer use for the remainder of this season’s corn planting. Soil temperatures at planting from here on (should) be more than adequate for rapid corn germination and early seedling growth, thus greatly diminishing the value of starter fertilizer. Eliminating starter fertilizer will not only reduce your costs, but will save some time during the planting operation. No-till corn, however, will likely continue to benefit from starter fertilizer applications, especially the nitrogen component, for planting throughout the remainder of the month.
As the end of May quickly approaches dry beans will soon be planted throughout most of the state. One pest that can lead to major yield reductions, quality problems and issues with harvest are weeds. To help stay ahead of these pests, below is a summary of what weed control options are available in dry edible beans with approximate herbicide costs. Estimations of herbicide costs are calculated from an average of three 2005 in-season herbicide price lists. For additional information on weed control in dry beans please consult the 2006 MSU Weed Control Guide for Field Crops (E-434) http://www.ipm.msu.edu/cat06field/06weedguide.htm.
Preplant incorporated
only
Trifluralin (Treflan), pendimethalin (Prowl H2O, Prowl, Pendimax), and Sonalan: Annual grass control is excellent with all three herbicides. Trifluralin and Sonalan provide better pigweed control than pendimethalin. Pendimethalin and Sonalan provide better common lambsquarters control than trifluralin. None of these herbicides will control eastern black nightshade or common ragweed. Eptam should be tank-mixed with each of these herbicides for additional annual grass and broadleaf weed control. The application rate of Trifluralin 4L is 1 pt/A (~$2.50/A); Prowl H2O is 1.6 pt/A (~$5.85/A); Sonalan is 2 pt/A (~$6.80/A).
Eptam: Eptam provides excellent control of several annual grasses and good control of common lambsquarters. Eptam also will suppress common ragweed, wild mustard and nightshade species. Thus tank-mixing Eptam with trifluralin, pendimethalin (Prowl), or Sonalan will improve control of these weeds. Eptam is applied at 1.25 qt/A (~$10.30/A). It is important to weigh these costs against the weed control benefits. A Section 18 has been granted for Reflex for the 2006 season, so Reflex could be applied postemergence for control of common ragweed and nightshade.
Pursuit Plus: Pursuit Plus provides fair control of common cocklebur, jimsonweed and smartweed and good to excellent control of several broadleaf and annual grass weeds. Common ragweed is not controlled. Pursuit Plus is typically applied at 20 fl oz/A (~$7.60/A). On heavy soils with more than 2% O.M. this rate can be increased to 30 fl oz/A. Crop injury can occur from applications of Pursuit Plus. Precautions that need to be taken to avoid crop injury include: do not apply on sands or loamy sand soils, do not apply if cold or cold, wet conditions are predicted one week after planting and remember that dry bean varieties can vary in their sensitivity to Pursuit, so keep this in mind when trying a new dry bean variety. Rotation restrictions are also critical with Pursuit Plus. These restrictions include 40 months and a bioassay for sugar beets, cucumbers and tomatoes; 18 months for oats; and 26 months for potatoes.
Alachlor (IntRRo, Micro-Tech): Alachlor provides excellent control of several annual grasses and good control of pigweed and eastern black nightshade. Alachlor should be incorporated in the top 2 inches of soil to minimize dry bean injury. Do not use alachlor on sands or sandy loam soils or injury can occur. Alachlor can be tank-mixed with Eptam, pendimethalin (Prowl), Sonalan or trifluralin for common lambsquarters control. Postemergence applications of a broadleaf herbicide may be needed for additional broadleaf weed control. IntRRo is typically applied at 2 qt/A (~$9.90/A).
Preemergence or
preplant incorporated
Dual Magnum and Outlook: A preplant incorporated application of either Dual Magnum or Outlook minimizes crop injury compared with preemergence applications. Navy and black beans are more sensitive to Outlook than Dual Magnum. Dual Magnum and Outlook both provide good control of pigweed and excellent control of annual grass weeds. However, Outlook provides better pigweed and eastern black nightshade control compared with Dual Magnum. Dual Magnum and Outlook can be tank-mixed with Eptam, pendimethalin (Prowl), Sonalan, or trifluralin for common lambsquarters control. Postemergence applications of a broadleaf herbicide may be needed for additional broadleaf weed control. The typical use rate for Dual Magnum is 1.33 pt/A (~$16.80/A) and Outlook is 14 fl oz/A (~$15.50/A).
Pursuit: Pursuit may be applied preemergence or preplant incorporated. Pursuit 70DG at 0.72 oz/A (~$8.75/A) can be tank-mixed with other soil-applied herbicides for additional broadleaf weed control and to control annual grasses. Remember Pursuit will not control common ragweed. Similar to Pursuit Plus, crop injury can occur and precautions need to be taken to avoid injury. These precautions include: do not apply on sands or loamy sand soils, do not apply if cold or cold-wet conditions are predicted one week after planting, and dry bean varieties vary in their sensitivity to Pursuit applications. Rotation restrictions are critical with Pursuit. These restrictions include 40 months and a bioassay for sugar beets, cucumbers, and tomatoes; 18 months for oats; and 26 months for potatoes.
Permit/Sandea: Permit provides excellent control of pigweeds and wild mustard and good control of common ragweed and velvetleaf. Permit is an ALS-inhibiting herbicide, so it will not control ALS-resistant weeds such as ALS-resistant common ragweed. Permit can be tank-mixed with Dual Magnum or Outlook for grass control. Application rates of Permit range from 0.5 oz/A (~$10.90/A) to 0.67 oz/A. The lower use rate should be used on sandier soils. Dry bean varieties appear to vary in their sensitivity to Permit, so precautions should be taken. The rotation restriction for Permit to sugar beets is 21 months.
Keeping in mind that Assure II, Targa, Select, Arrow and Poast are all registered for postemergence annual grass control in dry beans. Recommendations for herbicides used for postemergence broadleaf weed control tend to be a little more complicated. Options for postemergence broadleaf weed control in dry beans are limited to three registered herbicides: Basagran, Raptor, and Pursuit and Reflex, which has a Section 18 label for 2006 (http://www.ipm.msu.edu/cat06field/fc05-04-06.htm).
When looking at these different options there are a few things to consider when using these herbicides alone or in combination. One of the first things to consider is, “What are the weeds that need to be controlled?” These weeds will typically be ones that escape control from soil-applied herbicides and may include common ragweed, common lambsquarters and eastern black nightshade. Selection of an herbicide or combination of one or more of these herbicides will be dependent on the weed complex in the field (Table 1). When making these weed control decisions it is important to consider certain guidelines such as rotation restrictions, herbicide use rates, adjuvant selection, application timings and tank-mixtures with other herbicides.
Rotational restrictions: All postemergence broadleaf herbicides, with the exception of Basagran, have rotational crop restrictions. Some of these restrictions may influence your herbicide selection, depending on your cropping system. For example, the rotation restriction for Reflex is 10 months for corn and 18 months for alfalfa, sugar beets, potatoes, cucumbers, canola and tomatoes. The rotation restriction for Raptor is 18 months for sugar beets (extended to 26 months if pH is less than 6.2) and canola. Pursuit’s rotation restriction is 40 months and a bioassay for sugar beets, canola, cucumbers and tomatoes.
Use rates: The use rate for Reflex is 1 pt/A (~$12.70/A). Reflex can only be used once in a two-year period. Common ragweed less than 4-leaf will be controlled ½ pt/A of Reflex. The use rate for Raptor is 4 fl oz/A (~$15.70/A) in edible legumes. Pursuit 70DG is generally used at 0.72 oz/A (~$8.75/A) and Basagran rates range from 8 fl oz to 2 pt/A (1.25 pt/A ~$13.60/A) depending on weed species, size and herbicide tank-mixture.
Grass control: Foxtail control is good when Raptor is tank-mixed with Basagran at 8 fl oz/A + COC + 28%N (or AMS – ammonium sulfate). Barnyardgrass and crabgrass control are only fair. Assure II, Targa, Select, Arrow and Poast can be tank-mixed with Basagran, Reflex or Basagran + Reflex for grass control. However, do not tank-mix Assure II, Targa, Select, Arrow or Poast with Raptor or Pursuit, because grass control will be compromised.
Adjuvant selection: Basagran alone should be applied with 1 qt/A of a crop oil concentrate (COC). Reflex should be applied with a non-ionic surfactant (NIS) at 0.25 to 0.5% v/v or a COC at 0.5 to 1.0% v/v. Include COC when tank-mixing Basagran + Reflex. Raptor or Pursuit alone should be applied with 0.25% v/v of NIS. These herbicides alone will only provide limited control of selected weed species. To increase control, 12-15 lb/100 gal of spray solution of AMS can be added to Raptor + Basagran + COC or Pursuit + Basagran + NIS applications. The addition of at least 8 fl oz of Basagran to Raptor or Pursuit will “safen” these applications. To control common cocklebur, jimsonweed or provide good control of common lambsquarters, increase the rate of Basagran to 16 fl oz when tank-mixed with Raptor and use COC + AMS. Do not add AMS when tank-mixing Raptor and Reflex.
Application timing: Raptor, Reflex, Basagran or Pursuit should only be applied after dry beans have one fully expanded trifoliate. Do not apply these herbicides once dry beans start to bloom.
Rain-free periods: The rain-free period is 1 hour for Assure II, Targa, Select, Poast, Pursuit, Raptor, and Reflex and 8 hours for Basagran.
|
|
Rotation restrictions |
C. cocklebur |
Jimsonweed |
C. lambsquarters |
Eastern black nightshade |
Hairy nightshade |
Pigweed |
C. ragweed |
Smartweed |
Velvetleaf |
Wild mustard |
Yellow nutsedge |
|
Basagran + COC |
No |
E |
G |
F-G |
P |
G |
P |
F |
E |
G |
E |
G |
|
Reflex + COC or NIS |
Yes |
P |
F |
P |
F-G |
F-G |
G |
E |
P |
P |
E |
N |
|
Raptor + NIS |
Yes |
F |
F |
F |
E |
E |
E |
P |
F |
G |
E |
P |
|
Pursuit + NIS |
Yes |
P |
P |
P |
E |
E |
E |
P |
F |
F |
G |
F |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Basagran + Reflex + COC |
Yes |
E |
G |
F-G |
F-G |
G |
G |
E |
E |
G |
E |
G |
|
Basagran 8 oz + Raptor + COC + AMS |
Yes |
G |
F |
F-G |
E |
E |
E |
F |
G |
G |
E |
P |
|
Basagran 16 oz + Raptor + COC + AMS |
Yes |
E |
G |
G |
E |
E |
E |
F-G |
E |
G |
E |
F |
|
Basagran + Pursuit + NIS + AMS |
Yes |
E |
G |
F-G |
E |
E |
E |
F |
E |
G |
E |
F |
|
Reflex + Raptor + NIS |
Yes |
F |
F |
F |
E |
E |
E |
E |
F |
G |
E |
P |
Soil-applied herbicides remain an important part of weed control programs in corn and to a much lesser extent in soybeans. Because of the dry soil conditions that we experienced in April and the first couple of weeks of May, soil-applied herbicides were applied under conditions where there was little or no rainfall for incorporation leaving many of these herbicides on the soil surface. With the latest rainfall events the question remains, “How effective will these herbicides be that were applied in early to mid-April?” In order to answer this question, here is a quick review on how soil-applied herbicides work.
In order for a soil-applied herbicide to be effective, the herbicide needs to be available for uptake by the weed seedling. This usually means that the herbicide needs to be in solution before the seedling emerges, however there are a few herbicides that can control small emerged weeds under certain conditions (i.e., atrazine). Processes such as herbicide adsorption to soil colloids or organic matter can reduce the amount of herbicide available for weed absorption. Soil-applied herbicides do not prevent weed seed germination!! Soil-applied herbicides work by being absorbed by the root or shoot of the weed seedling as it emerges. Generally, this happens before the seedling emerges from the soil. For a herbicide to be absorbed by weed seedlings, the herbicide must be in the soil solution. Herbicides can be made available in the soil solution by mechanical incorporation (PPI applications) or incorporation by rainfall. Generally, with most of the soil-applied herbicide applications that we make in Michigan we rely on rainfall for herbicide incorporation. If we don’t receive adequate rainfall, the herbicide remains on the soil surface and is prone to dissipation processes, such as volatility and photolysis (depending on the herbicide). More importantly if the herbicide is not incorporated by rainfall or mechanically, the herbicide is not in the area of the soil where it would come into contact with germinating weed seedlings.
Many weed species, in particular small-seeded weeds, germinate from fairly shallow depths in the soil. The top one to two inches of soil is the primary zone from where these weed seeds will germinate, and therefore should be the target area for herbicide placement. In order for the herbicide to get into the weed seed emergence zone, 1/2 to 1-inch of rainfall is generally needed. To adequately incorporate the herbicides before weeds emerge, rainfall usually needs to happen within 7 to 10 days after application. So what happens when rainfall occurs after that 10-day window? From this point forward the soil-applied herbicide will be effective on weeds that are just emerging, but if weed seedlings have already emerged through the soil surface, it will be important to implement other control strategies (i.e., POST herbicides). For example, if a soil-applied grass herbicide was applied on April 12 right after planting and there was no rain until May 10, that herbicide would have been on the soil surface for 4 weeks. Grasses that had emerged from the soil during this time would not be controlled and fields should be scouted to see if additional control measures are warranted.
The recent and continuing stretch of cold, wet weather has resulted in soils that are water saturated and may remain cool and wet for several weeks. These conditions are particularly suitable for the development of lower stem and root-rotting pathogens for example, Phytophthora spp., Rhizoctonia, Pythium, Fusarium and other soil-inhabiting fungi and bacteria such as soft-rots (Erwinia caratovora). Spores of these fungi and water-molds can remain dormant in the soil for many years, and it is likely that with current soil conditions and retarded development and growth of roots, that many plants are vulnerable. Infected plants may exhibit symptoms that start with wilt and apparent nutrient deficiencies and ultimately become necrotic and die. The roots lose integrity and adhesion to the soil.
To check for lower stem rot or root rot, gently but firmly pull the plant upwards, if the plant comes away from the soil with minimal resistance and the roots are darkened, root rot may be the problem. Samples should be sent immediately to the diagnostic clinic for confirmation and diagnosis of the problem in order to implement appropriate control recommendations. Some accompanying images of root and lower stem rot symptoms in potatoes are included.
It is also possible that fungicidal seed treatments and in-furrow applied fungicides are no longer present in sufficient quantity in the soil to be effective. Once the soil has dried out sufficiently (about 15 to 20% volumetric soil moisture) appropriate fungicides for soil-borne and root diseases may be applied. Use only fungicides recommended for the diagnosed pathogen and use label recommended rates and application methods (Table 1). Application of azoxystrobin (Quadris 2.08SC) shortly after emergence inhibited Rhizoctonia black scurf in trials at MSU in 1998 and has continued to be effective in more recent trials (see Figure 1).
|
Class of fungicide |
Common name |
Trade names |
Pathogen targets |
|
Carbamate |
Propamocarb HCl |
Previcur Plus |
Phytophthora spp. |
|
Coppers, unfixed |
Copper Hydroxide |
Kocide Champ |
Topical bacteria Phytophthora spp. |
|
Organic phosphate |
Phosphonic acid |
Phostrol |
Pythium Phytophthora spp. |
|
Phenylamide |
Mefenoxam |
Ridomil Gold And other formulations |
Pythium Phytophthora spp. |
|
Strobilurines and other group 11. |
Azoxystrobin Pyraclostrobin Trifloxystrobin |
Amistar Headline Gem |
Rhizoctonia |
Rhizoctonia root and
crown rot caused by Rhizoctonia solani
Kuhn AG2-2 is the most common and serious soil-borne disease of sugar beet. R. solani survives as mycelium or
sclerotia in the soil in organic debris and is thought to be most active at
soil temperatures between 77 to 92oF. However, we have found that
the pathogen is active at lower soil temperatures and serious losses have
occurred in areas with a history of Rhizoctonia especially after wet and cool
springs. Over the past few years effective fungicides for control of
Rhizoctonia have been successfully used in Michigan. For this season, after the
wet, cool spring, we are recommending that growers apply Quadris 2.08SC as soon
as they are able to re-enter fields. Application rates of 5.3 to 10.5 fl. Oz/A
have proved effective in years when conditions have been particularly conducive
for disease development. Results form trials exposed to natural incoulum are
shown below and of course the more resistant varieties have relatively lees
yield loss due to Rhizoctonia, but even resistant varieties responded
positively to the application of Quadris (In these trials the application to
the resistant cultivar was in-furrow.).
|
Cultivar/rate of application of Quadris (fl oz/A) and date of application |
Stand count (days after planting) |
RAUPSCb |
Yield |
||||||||||||||
|
10 |
20 |
30 |
122 |
ton/A |
|||||||||||||
|
E17 |
10.5a |
Apr 26 |
|
|
10.5 |
May 26 |
71.4 |
ac |
85.9 |
ab |
87.6 |
60.1 |
a |
60.4 |
a |
17.4 |
ab |
|
E17 |
10.5 |
Apr 26 |
|
|
|||||||||||||